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Ancient Roman coins denoted as “pseudo-autonomous” are generally defined as issues struck by cities and provinces under the suzerainty of Rome, yet lacking an imperial obverse portrait. To scholars, such coins provide insights into ancient realms whose recorded histories might be relatively sparse. To ancient coin enthusiasts, such coins provide interesting and artistic numismatic designs. The current coin, dating from Rome’s golden age under the rule of Emperor Hadrian, provides a noteworthy example.
The strike occurred at Hermocapelia, a mint located in the ancient Asia Minor realm known as Lydia, at that time part of the Asia province. Ancient Lydia abounded in precious metals, its rich numismatic heritage dating to the dawn of coinage itself. Lydia also earned fame as the birthplace of worshipping Roma, whose divine visage appears on this coin. On this particular coin, Roma is depicted with Hellenistic flair, draped and turreted, echoing iconic Lydian coinage produced centuries earlier (for example, silver drachms featuring the turreted portrait of Tyche). In comparison, Roman republican and imperial coinage attributed to Roma reflect a blending of Greek and Italic motifs into a warrior-goddess replete with visored military helmet.
Countering Roma on the opposite flan is the bust of a young man often denoted as the “youthful bust of Senate” in numismatic references. Curiously, Senate depicted on this coin appears young even though the very word derives from the Latin
senex, meaning old man. The pairing of Roma and Senate was an intriguing choice for Hermocapelia’s civil coinage. It is interesting to note that the numismatic motif of Senate was relatively uncommon on Roman pseudo-autonomous coinage, with probably all such issues attributed to mints in Lydia or neighboring Caria. While the actual intent remains unknown, this specific coin simultaneously advertises Lydia’s prominence while paying homage to the ancient world’s most powerful realm and its eldest, most venerable political institution.
The history of the Roman Senate dates to the founding of the Eternal City herself. Beginning with Romulus, Rome’s kings of old employed Rome’s Senators in an advisory role. Notably, the Senate enjoyed certain privileges as Rome’s aristocracy. Perhaps the Senate’s most important role was exercised between the death of the king and the coronation of his successor. Specifically, the Senate served as the interim government until they nominated the succeeding monarch, who was subsequently confirmed by popular election.
The year 509 BC is cited as Rome’s transition from monarchial to republican rule. At that time, the Senate suffered through the eradication of many members by Rome’s final king before they managed to oust him. Over the next several decades, the Senate’s powers expanded as their realm evolved into a Roman Republic. The Senate passed decrees called
senatus consulta, directing magistrates (in particular the two head magistrates known as Roman consuls) in certain important matters such as military affairs. Other important magistrates included the
tresviri aere argento auro flando feriundo, i.e., the three men for producing bronze, silver and gold coinage. The Roman Senate played a prominent role in local governance over Italy, in addition to appointment of magistrates ruling the outer provinces. In the case of an emergency, the Senate could nominate a dictator. This practice was relatively common up until late 2nd century BC. After that, only two men would claim that title, notably Sulla (82-81 BC) and Julius Caesar (49-44 BC) as the prelude for another governmental transition, this time into an autocracy.
The Senate was not the only political institution of ancient Rome. Beneath the ruling patricians resided the plebeian underclass, representing the vast majority of Rome’s population. In 494 BC, the plebs, disgruntled over several matters including their debt burden, decided to act in the form of a
secessio plebis, or plebeian succession. One can only imagine the chaos as Rome’s Senators found themselves suddenly lacking the infrastructure supporting their aristocratic lifestyles. To end their suffering, the patricians agreed to creation of a
Concilium Plebis, a popular assembly presided over by a newly defined post of Tribune of the Plebs. This was the first step in establishing important checks over the Roman Senate’s power. A half century later, another crisis of plebian succession led to broadened plebeian rights and powers. Most notably, laws passed by the Plebeian Council henceforth applied to Romans of all social classes.
When Rome transitioned into an Empire, the balance of power shifted to the Emperor. The situation is often described as one in which Senators in principle held even more control, as they absorbed all legislative, judicial, and electoral powers from all the various Roman assemblies. In practice, however, the Emperor controlled and used the Senate to exercise autocratic power. It was the Emperor’s prerogative to appoint and eliminate Senators, for example Augustus reduced the Senate’s roll from 900 to 600 individuals. Any illusion of power held by the Senate ended with the constitutional reforms decreed by Emperor Diocletian around 300 AD. Three decades later when Emperor Constantine I shifted his seat of power to Constantinople, he invited Rome’s Senators to move with him, creating new, eastern appointees as necessary (his son Constantius II increased the number of Senators to 2000).
By late 4th century AD, both office of Emperor and the political institution of the Senate had separate western and eastern counterparts. The western Senate survived Rome’s descent into barbaricum starting around mid-5th century AD. Indeed, their power resurged as subsequent barbarian kings - first Odoacer, followed by the rulers of the Ostrogothic Kingdom - valued the Senate’s wisdom and sought to retain the long-lived institution. Even so, the Roman Senate ultimately declined and, like the position of their Western Emperor before them, faded into the shadows of history. The situation vastly differed in the east, where the Senate evolved on its own path towards a sustained resurgence. By 6th to 7th century AD, the eastern Senate largely controlled the wealth and power of the Byzantine Empire, including the selection of Emperor. Although its structure and extent of power varied dramatically over the following several centuries, in one form or another the Senate in Constantinople endured until at least early 13th century AD.
As much as any other facet of ancient Rome, its Senate profoundly influenced our modern world. To this day, the concept of a Senate and their role in balancing power forms an integral facet of many municipal, regional and national governments around the world.
Coin Details: LYDIA, Hermocapelia, Pseudo-Autonomous Issue, Reign of Hadrian, circa 117-138 AD, AE18 (18 mm, 3.34 g), NGC Grade: Ch XF, Strike: 4/5, Surface: 3/5, Obverse: Draped youthful bust of the Senate right, IERACYN KLHTOC, Reverse: Turreted and draped bust of Roma right, monogram before, ERMOK APHLITW, References: BMC: 8; SGN Cop 165.