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The ancient Romans considered
religio, the care of the gods, as their duty, one that even skeptic Cicero described as “necessary.” Rome's gods and goddesses, with their varied traits and eccentricities mirroring humanity's, integrally wove into the fabric of society. There was a deity for every occasion.
Rome's founders and earliest rulers had many divine connections, providing a basis for the concept of
mos maiorum, the way of the ancestors. In addition to her own gods, Rome borrowed from many other societies, the Greeks for starters. As Rome's territory grew, so did the divine directory, and the Empire's success was directly attributed to
pietas, or good relations with her various gods. For practicality, absorbing conquered societies' philosophies promoted local stability, rather than attempting to eradicate or convert others' views. In turn, this strategy added to Rome's diversity and strength.
With so many gods, there were plenty of religious ceremonies to go around; Romans celebrated many dozens annually. Normal business halted during such occasions, so citizens enjoyed the day off from work and could participate (note that the concept of a weekend rest from working is a modern day one). The large list of divinities also meant numerous priesthoods to fill, and Rome's elite faithfully obliged. Particularly important were augurs, responsible for communicating the will of the gods, a vehicle employed to sanction expansionism as divine destiny. Not surprisingly, Rome's Emperors typically held important religious posts, and often were posthumously elevated to the status of gods themselves.
The current denarius, struck in 161 AD, provides an illustration. The obverse features the bust of recently deceased Augustus Antoninus, whose act of deifying his predecessor, Hadrian, earned him the nickname of Pius. Antoninus Pius' peaceful and prosperous reign lasted twenty-three years, the longest since Augustus'. It was logical that upon his own death, Antoninus Pius' effort would be paid forward, as advertised by the obverse inscription, DIVVS ANTONINVS. The reverse depicts an enormous funeral pyre, comprising no fewer than four tiers of decreasing size, with even the topmost still large enough to support a entire quadriga (a four-horsed chariot). The inscription CONSECRATIO encircles the pyre. This elaborate scene demonstrates how seriously the ancient Romans treated the passage of life into death, worship of their Augusti, and their admiration for Antoninus Pius in particular. Like all imperial events, the itinerary of Antoninus Pius' funeral - including the opening procession, cremation upon the funeral pyre, the
apotheosis (the process denoting the Emperor's transformation into a god), eulogies, feasting, and commemoration - were all exquisitely planned and executed.
This denarius was struck by the new co-Augusti, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, who also issued bronze and gold coins advertising their predecessor's upgraded status. More importantly, these coins were meant to illustrate the piety of the new regime and continuity with the old one. Nearly every Roman Emperor attempted a similar strategy, namely utilization of religion as a political tool. This is not to say that such endeavors were insincere; on the contrary, most, if not all, considered their efforts as divine duty. Moreover, each Emperor had their own favorite deity, with whom they associated themselves, as evidenced over centuries of ancient Roman coinage. For instance, Julius Caesar claimed direct ancestry from Venus, and his adoptive son Augustus was a patron of Venus and Apollo. In another example, Augustus Domitian worshiped Minerva to the point he had a shrine dedicated to her within his own living quarters. Infamously, Augustus Elagabalus tried to convert all of Rome over to his own favorite, the Syrian sun god Heliogabal; later generations of Emperors including Aurelian and Probus promoted Rome's new version of the sun god, Sol Invictus. Augustus Diocletian associated himself with Jovian, while his other, subordinate co-Augusti were more suited to less powerful divine figures, for example Maximian with Hercules. Also rather notable was Augustus Constantine's devotion to Christianity, and its eventual adoption across the entire Roman Empire.
Prior to Constantine, the polytheistic Romans considered monotheistic religions like Christianity to be strange, narrow-minded, and heretical. Prosecutions against those professing monotheism varied by Emperor and region, and included prohibitions, destruction of places of worship, enslavement, imprisonment, and martyrdoms. Ironically, it was the Empire's wide religious tolerance and inclusionary policy than resulted in a discriminatory view towards monotheism; after all, any religion invalidating other religions could result in destabilization, tantamount to treason against the Empire. Rome acutely faced this dilemma upon establishment of Judaea as one of her many client kingdoms. The fanatical, monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed a problem that, while temporarily addressed by exemptions, ultimately led to intractable dispute and war, notably the Jewish-Roman War and the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Christianity posed a similar problem, and tolerance varied according to Rome's different Emperors. Among the most notorious persecutors of Christians were Emperors Nero (who accused them of starting the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD), Trajan Decius, Valerian, Diocletian, and Galerius.
Those Augusti tolerating Christianity included Constantius I and his descendants, most prominently Constantine. The latter brokered an agreement known as the Edict of Milan, after which the Empire officially and permanently tolerated all religions, even Christianity. Eventually, Constantine succeeded in elevating Christianity to the Empire's favored religion, although there were many intra-faith doctrines being promulgated. To address the intra-faith divisions, Constantine hosted a meeting in Nicene in 325 AD, at which it was decided that Christianity's course would largely follow Orthodox, rather than Arian views. Constantine's successors continued to promote Christianity, although his sons quarreled over Arian versus Nicene philosophies, and his nephew Julian II led paganism's brief resurgence.
Christianity firmly intertwined with the Empire's identity, particularly after Constantine relocated the imperial court to Byzantium. Today we refer to the resulting, transformed realm as the Byzantine Empire, which lasted for nearly another millennium. Eventually, the Byzantine Empire declined, increasingly threatened by external foes, such as its Muslim neighbors. In 1453, the Ottomans, led by Sultan Mehmed II, conquered Constantinople and its last Emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos. Religion, which played an integral part in the Empire's genesis and evolution, also factored prominently in its decline and fall.
Coin Details: ROMAN EMPIRE, Antoninus Pius, AD 138-161 AD, AR Denarius (18mm, 3.28g), NGC Grade: MS, Strike: 5/5, Surface: 5/5, Obverse: Bareheaded bust right, DIVVS ANTONINVS, Reverse: Crematorium or pyre, surmounted by quadriga, CONSECRATIO, References: RIC 438 [Aurelius]; RSC 164a; BMC 60.