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Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (240? – 312? AD) was common-born in Dalmatia province, possibly even the son of a freedman. Despite these humble origins, Diocletian rose in prominence within the Roman military under Emperors Aurelian and Probus, reaching the status of a commander. By the time of Augustus Numerian, Diocletian was one of the Empire’s most important military strategists.
In 284 AD, the eastern troops were traveling back to Rome when the Praetorian prefect Aper announced he had discovered Numerian dead inside his coach. The troops met and voted Diocletian as their new Augustus. Diocletian, perhaps trying to dispel any doubts regarding his modest roots, insisted on ritual and formality. He gathered the troops around him, donned the purple imperial vestments, and, raising his sword to the sun, swore he had nothing to do with Numerian’s death. Instead he conveniently declared Aper at fault (whether or not the prefect was actually guilty remains unclear), and personally carried out the death sentence.
Consolidating his rule, Diocletian battled with his rival Augustus, Numerian's brother Carinus. Diocletian’s troops were outnumbered and on the verge of defeat when suddenly fortune turned; Carinus was assassinated by one of his own officers, whose wife he reputedly had seduced. Diocletian was now undisputed Augustus, and, contrary to his predilection for formality, did not travel to Rome for Senate confirmation (in fact, he would not step foot in Rome for two decades). The act was quite deliberate, consistent with his long-term goal to expand governance away from Rome and exclude the Sentorial class from any aspect of the imperial administration.
Diocletian, in his forties and childless, required an heir; moreover, he needed immediate assistance in running the Empire. Therefore, he turned to his trusted military colleague, Maximian. The latter was declared Caesar, and, after a successful quelling of a Gallic revolt a year later, co-Augustus. Diocletian focused on the east and Maximian the west. In the view of many historians, Diocletian’s brains complemented Maximian’s brawn. The distinction was also made on a divine level. In 287 AD, the Augusti announced themselves sons of the Gods, namely Jupiter and Hercules (the pairings should be obvious).
The theme was spread throughout the provinces, for example on coins like this one, struck sometime during Diocletian’s co-reign with Maximian, before economic and administrative reforms that would transform the Empire. The radiate and draped portrait bust bears similarity to Diocletian’s predecessors, for instance, Emperor Aurelian. On the reverse, the right hands of two stately figures converge on a globe, atop which perches Victory. One interpretation of the scene, consistent with the attribution by NGC Ancients, is that the two figures are Jupiter and Hercules, sharing acknowledgment for their victories. Given their religious affiliations, an almost identical view is that the figures represent the co-Augusti themselves. An alternate possibility is that Jupiter is bestowing congratulations upon his favorite son, none other than Augustus Diocletian. The ambiguity between these various interpretations may very well have been intentional.
Regardless of the engraver’s exact intent, both Diocletian and Maximian deserved accolades for their military efforts over their first decade of co-rule. For example, Diocletian defeated the Sarmatians on the Danube front, earning the title of Germanicus Maximus. A notable exception to these successes was the continued and sticky issue of Carausius and his rogue state of Imperium Britannicum. Although their co-reign had yielded excellent results thus far, it was time for Diocletian and Maximian to take the next step in administrative evolution.
To this end, the co-Augusti staged an elaborate festival over the winter of 290-1 AD, wherein the pair led an entourage through northern Italy, ending with a meeting in Milan to discuss the Empire’s future. The event was carefully staged, not only towards imperial promotion but also increasing the citizens’ morale. As was his wont, Diocletian made sure the event was elaborately steeped in pomp and circumstance. At each venue, the Emperors were met with an adventus, a welcome ceremony wherein the Empire’s citizens - from noblemen to traders to performers – could have the once-in-a-lifetime experience of direct access to an Emperor. Each city of the tour tried to outshine the last. Even on a municipal level there could be benefits for pleasing an Augustus, such as preferred tax status and financial assistance for funding building repairs
The festivities also featured panegyric, public speeches bestowing praise upon the Augusti, and some transcripts from 291 AD have survived. Consistent with the harmony advertised on this coin’s verso, the panegyrist proclaimed: “
You rule the state with one mind, and the great physical distance between you does not prevent your governing as with right hands clasped…you enhance the royal majesty with your twin deity, you maintain the advantage of a single empire by your unanimity.”
Indeed, the cooperation between Diocletian and Maximian – both in planning and fighting – substantially improved the Empire’s stability and unity. Following their discussions in Milan, the co-Augusti embarked on further administrative changes that profoundly affected the Roman Empire’s future.
Additional Reading: Panegyric of Maximian Augustus by an Anonymous Orator, trans. B. S. Rodgers, 2014.
Coin Details: ROMAN EMPIRE, Diocletian, 284-305 AD, BI Aurelianianus (3.99 g), Pre-reform coinage (284-293/4 AD), Struck in Cyzicus (or possibly Siscia?), NGC Grade: Ch AU, Strike: 5/5, Surface 5/5, Obverse: Radiate and draped bust right, IMP C C VAL DIOCLETIANVS AVG, Reverse: Diocletian (or Hercules?) receiving Victory on globe from Jupiter, CONCORDIA MI_LITVM, B in field, XXI in exergue, Reference: Vagi 2656.