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From the Latin
plangere, “to strike down,” the word plague in modern context refers to a specific, lethal disease caused by the gammaproteobacterium
Yersinia pestis. Infectious diseases such as plague have long plagued humankind. Despite fantastic advances in modern medicine, infectious disease remains a leading cause of adult mortality, and tops all causes of death among children and adolescents. Populations most vulnerable are those with poor sanitation, overcrowding, and large populations of insects or rodents.
These very same conditions were prevalent in ancient Rome. Although an elite few lived within single-family homes atop Rome’s hills, the vast majority of residents – perhaps 95% - lived in crowded squalor in unhealthy, lower-lying areas. Rome had elaborate public baths and bathrooms, and an extensive sewer system (the
Cloaca Maxima) unmatched for a millennium after the Eternal City’s decline. While impressive for its longevity, Rome’s sewer system was flawed; sewage and street refuse drained through the same piping, promoting growth and spread of pathogens. Even Rome’s fabled public baths were far less hygienic than typically imagined, and instead served as ideal bacterial breeding grounds.
Greco-Roman medical philosophies, dating back to Hippocrates and advanced by Galen and others, emphasized prevention rather than treatment. As an example, many ancient physicians espoused ingestion of sub-lethal doses of poisons to foster immunity. Unfortunately, the ancient Romans failed to extend the concept to preventing disease (that practice, namely vaccination, would not be developed until late 18th century). Thus, despite representing the world’s most powerful society, the Empire was practically defenseless against the threat of plague. An important example was the Antonine Plague, spread from Mesopotamia by Emperor Lucius Verus’ returning troops. The cause was likely the deadly smallpox virus. Lacking innate immunity or the opportunity to evolve an adaptive response, some infected populations were reduced perhaps by half. A century later, pestilence struck the Empire again, and once more claimed slaves, equestrians, and aristocrats alike. This time, the deceased even included Rome’s First Citizen, Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus (230? – 251 AD).
In mid 3rd century AD, Hostilian briefly held the title of Augustus over a crisis-ridden realm. He hailed from Rome’s imperial family: son of Trajan Decius and Herennia Etruscilla, and brother of Herennius Etruscus. Around 250 AD, the teenaged Hostilian served as successor, or Caesar, remaining home in Rome while his father and brother left to defend against the Goths along the Danube. In a shocking development, the two co-Augusti were ambushed and killed by the enemy. This unprecedented tragedy left Hostilian as the rightful successor. However, Danubian troops on the scene claimed their own commander, Trebonianus Gallus, as Emperor. Gallus marched to Rome to claim the promotion, upon which he adopted Hostilian as son, and agreed to share power. Finally, Gallus back-filled the Caesar position with his biological son, Volusian.
Even the newly-broadened imperial team was no match for the Empire’s woes: numerous border wars, hyperinflation, and, most horrific, the Cyprian Plague. The latter, whose etiology remains uncertain (some cite measles), spread out from Carthage to strike at much of Africa and Europe. Archaeological remains, including tens of thousands of graves, reveal extensive production and use of the disinfectant calcium oxide, otherwise known as lime, which is still in use today. Similar evidence indicates burning of human corpses at a massive scale. Consistent with gory eyewitness accounts, many feared mankind at end.
Around this time, Hostilian and his mother left Rome to command Legio VII Claudia and Legio IIII Flavia Felix, stationed at Viminacium, the provincial capital of Moesia Superior. Located near wide and easily navigable stretches of the Danube, Viminacium stood at the crossroads connecting major routes to the east, south, and west - likely an ideal nexus for spreading infectious disease. One can only imagine Viminacium’s dreadful atmosphere when its mint workers struck this ancient bronze coin. The obverse depicts a boyish Hostilian’s bareheaded, draped, and cuirassed bust, along with the epithet C VAL HOST M QVINTVS CAE (herein, Hostilian bears title of Caesar, similar issues acknowledge promotion to AVG). While not uncommon, relatively well-preserved coins such as the current example are relatively scarce; many specimens reveal exposure to high temperatures and calcium, haunting reminders of widespread funeral pyres. The verso depicts the local goddess Moesia standing between a bull and a lion, representing the local legions. The reverse inscription P M S COL VIM confirms the geographical location, while AN XII places the coin’s striking at 251 AD, twelve years since Augustus Gordian conferred the area’s autonomy.
Hostilian’s stay at Viminacium, like his reign as Augustus, was brief. He died in late 251 AD one of the countless victims who perished by plague. Due to fear of further spreading disease, Hostilian’s body was buried in Moesia, rather than transported back to Rome. The Cyprian plague ravaged for decades before it died out, and claimed the life of another Roman Emperor, Claudius Gothicus, in 270 AD. Viminacium eventually recovered, and remained an important Roman colony until its destruction in 441 AD by Attila the Hun. A century later, Viminacium was rebuilt by Emperor Justinian I, just as the world was struck by one of the worst pandemics it had ever seen - the Justinian Plague, a gruesome disease caused by flea-born
Y. pestis whose spread was exacerbated by human contact with rodents. By this time Rome and the West had already declined, and the realm had transitioned into the Byzantine Empire. Justinian’s plague struck at his capital Constantinople, and the Augustus himself was infected, although he managed to recover. An estimated 40% of the city’s other residents were not so fortunate. Perhaps a quarter of the entire Byzantine Empire and over half all Europe perished, and outbreaks recurred for two centuries.
The catastrophic effects of ancient plagues have been widely discussed. Besides obvious impacts (severe reduction in military conscriptions, agricultural production and economic productivity), there were cultural and spiritual repercussions. There was a renewed religiosity that favored Christianity’s rise, and an increasing need for integration with barbarian tribes. True to its etymology, plague was a major force in striking down the Roman Empire.
Additional Reading: “Disease and death in the ancient city of Rome,” W Scheidel, 2009.
Coin Details: MOESIA SUPERIOR, Viminacium. Hostilian. As Caesar, AD 250-251. Æ (25mm, 12.02 g, 12h). Dated CY 12 (AD 251), NGC Grade: XF, Strike: 5/5, Surface: 4/5, Obverse: Bareheaded, draped, and cuirassed bust right, C VAL HOST M QUINTVS CAE, Reverse: Moesia standing facing, head left, hands outstretched over a lion and a bull, P M S COL VIM, AN XII (in exergue), References: RPC IX online 37; AMNG I 148; Varbanov 194; Moushmov 54.