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The history of ancient Rome is rife with notorious Emperors, so it is no small notoriety that Caracalla (188-217 AD), the eldest son of Emperor Septimus Severus and Empress Julia Domna, is often considered the cruelest of the cruel. While the youthful Caracalla was reportedly docile and affable, he would eventually mature into a ruthless dictator. An intense sibling rivalry with his younger brother Geta sparked this remarkable transformation, as evidenced through the evolving iconography of Caracalla’s coinage.
At just eight years old, Caracalla was appointed as Caesar, and two years later was promoted to co-Emperor, setting a new record for the youngest ever to wear the purple. At that time, Severus backfilled the post of Caesar with Geta, While Severus understood the dangerous ramifications of his sons’ conflict, he had no choice but to logically position them according to seniority. Severus did what he could to try and encourage his sons to get along. In 203 AD, Severus made both Caracalla and Geta co-consuls, hoping the experience would force them to cooperate. Unfortunately, the strategy failed and even further fueled their acrimony. Several years later, Severus tried the same experiment again, only to confirm that power sharing between the quarreling brothers was problematic.
Forcing the issue, Severus took both his sons on the Britannia campaign in 209 AD, using the opportunity to promote Geta from backup to part of his leadership team (from Caesar to co-Augusti). It was a bold experiment, and a new record – never before had the Empire hosted three Augusti simultaneously, at least not officially. Alas, the new imperial arrangement didn’t last long; an increasingly frail Severus died of natural causes in 211 AD. The brothers were now jointly responsible for ruling the Empire devoid of any buffering influence of their domineering father. They returned to Rome, escalating their strife with one another. They split the royal palace, posting guards at the various intersections. Rumors of murder plots abounded. Domna tried to mediate between her two sons, but she failed. After a few months of political strife and plotting, a final peace offering was conducted – final because Caracalla used the opportunity to have his brother murdered, one of many brutal massacres and persecutions he conducted throughout the empire.
The act of fratricide accelerated Caracalla’s descent into further cruelty and madness. In the aftermath, he strove to erase even the memory of Geta. He carried out a wide-ranging massacre of Geta’s partisans across Rome, numbering in the tens of thousands. Moreover, Caracalla decreed that his brother be wiped clean from history (
damnatio memoriae), ordering the elimination of Geta’s name and visage across the Empire, including all records, statues, paintings, and even coins. For the rest of his life, Caracalla could not suffer any reminder of Geta’s existence. A particularly gruesome example occurred after Caracalla learned about an Alexandrian satire that mocked his claim of killing Geta in self-defense. He arrived at the Egyptian capital city with his troops, and led them on a grisly path of robbery, rape, and the murder of many tens of thousands of unsuspecting citizens.
So vile were Caracalla’s deeds that their impression marked even his coinage, for example this denarius struck in 212 AD shortly after Geta’s murder. According to the reference cited below, the obverse portrait of Caracalla as a young adult on this coin can be considered Type 3. The characteristic elements are short-cropped hair with single curls, and a pathognomonic facial expression with highly accentuated facial furrows, particularly on the forehead. Interpretations of Caracalla’s Type 3 portraiture range from the embodiment of Satan to the representation of a cruel despot or even an attacking soldier. It is also possible that Caracalla had his own agenda and may have directed a change in his portraiture to convey his newly found dominance as sole Augustus, and make is clear he would vigorously defend his throne against all threats. Regardless of the true intent behind the dramatic change in Caracalla’s portraiture, the result is striking, arguably one of the most impressive ancient portrait styles.
It is interesting to note that the pathognomonic nature of Caracalla’s portraiture from this period is consistent with reports of his declining mental and physical health following Geta’s murder. It is also interesting that the reverse of this particular coin features Salus, the Roman goddess of safety and well-being. It is not certain if the intended sentiment is directed towards the Emperor himself. Arguably, the Roman people were also in need of healing in the wake of Geta’s murder and the widespread proscriptions that followed.
As for Caracalla, he was evidently beyond healing, with the blood of so many victims staining his hands. His mental and physical health continued to deteriorate to the point of precipitating his eventual decline and assassination.
Additional Reading: F Leitmeir, Between Tradition and Innovation: The Visual Representation of Severan Emperors, in: E. de Sena (ed.),
The Roman Empire during the Severan Dynasty. Case Studies in History, Art, Architecture, Economy and Literature, Gorgias Press, 2013, pp 465–492.
Additional Reading: G. Halabi, “Caracalla from Innocence to Villainy: As Recorded by his Coin Engravers.”
Coin Details: ROMAN EMPIRE, Caracalla. Struck 212 AD. Rome, AR Denarius (2.90g), Obverse: Laureate head right, ANTONINVS PIVS AVG BRIT, Reverse: Salus seated left, feeding snake from patera & holding cornucopiae, PM TR P XV COS III PP, References: RSC 206.