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| Bactria,Indo-Greeks, Menander, c. 165/55-130 BC, AR Drachm (2.42g) obv helmeted bust rv Athena advancing |
ANCIENT - GREEK EMPIRES (6th CENT BC - 5th CENT AD) BACTRIA, INDO-GREEKS Menander, c.165/55-130 BC
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AR Drachm BC 165/55-130 Bactria, Indo-greeks rv Athena advancing obv helmeted bust
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NGC XF Strike: 4/5 Surface: 4/5
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Bactria, Indo-Greeks Menander
Time Period: 165/55-130 BC
Composition: Silver
Sear: #7601
Grade: XF, Strike 4/5, Surface 4/5,
Census - NGC does not provide census info on ancient coins
Obv. Portrait bust of Menander wearing crested helmet. Legend in Greek
Rev. Full Standing Figure of the Goddess Athena Alkidemos (Savior of the People) Left Advancing with Upraised Shield (AEGIS) in left arm and thunderbolt in right hand. Legend in Khorosthi.
THE GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGDOM (256-125 BC) WAS SUCCESSOR KINGDOM, COMPRISED BY THE EASTERNMOST PROVINCES OF THE ANCIENT HELLENISTIC CIVILIZATION THAT WAS ESTABLISHED BY THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER III "THE GREAT" OF MACEDON. CENTERED AROUND THE PROVINCES OF BACTRIA AND SOGDIANA IN ANCIENT IRAN / MODERN AFGHANISTAN, THE GRECO-BACTRIANS WERE PUSHED INTO NORTHWEST INDIA / PAKISTAN BY INVASIONS OF THE SCYTHIAN TRIBES, AND IN TURN CONQUERED AND ESTABLISHED THE INDO-GREEK KINGDOM. THE GREEKS IN INDIA, AND THE SEPARATE SMALL STATES OR SATRAPIES THAT THEY RULED, BECAME SEPARATED FROM THE BACTRIAN KINGDOM. AS A RESULT, THE GREEKS MIXED WITH THE INDIAN POPULACE AND THE SUBSEQUENT INTEGRATION OF HINDU, BUDDHISM AND ANCIENT GREEK PRACTICES CREATED A FUSION OF RELIGIONS AND CULTURES.
ONE OF THE GREATEST OF THE INDO-GREEK RULERS WAS MENANDER, SON OF DEMETRIUS, RULER OF NORTHERN PUNJAB. HE RULED OVER THE EASTERN MOST REALM OF THE DIVIDED EMPIRE OF BACTRIA. HE WAS A GREAT CONQUEROR AND EVENTUALLY CONVERTED TO BUDDHISM. HIS REIGN WAS A LONG AND SUCCESFUL ONE AND HE IS MENTIONED BY THE HISTORIANS APOLLODORUS AND STRABO.
MENANDER WAS THE FIRST INDO-GREEK RULER TO INTRODUCE THE IMAGE OF ATHENA ALKIDEMOS (SAVIOUR OF THE PEOPLE), A MACEDONIAN IMAGE, ON HIS COINAGE.
My cost $129.00
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| Seleucid Kingdom, Alexander I, 152-145 BC, AE19 (5.58g) obv Helmeted hd, rv Nike crowns name of Alexander |
ANCIENT - GREEK EMPIRES (6th CENT BC - 5th CENT AD) SELEUCID KINGDOM Alexander I, 152-145 BC
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AE19 152-145 BC Seleucid Kingdom crowns name of Alexander. obv helmeted hd. rv Nike
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NGC Ch VF Strike: 5/5 Surface: 4/5
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Seleucid Kingdom Alexander I, Balas
152-145 BC
Sear #7040
Grade is VF, Strike 5/5, Surface 4/5,
Census - NGC does not provide census info on ancient coins
Obv. No legend, head of Alexander I facing right wearing a crested helmet.
Rev. BASI?EOE on right, A?E?AN?POY on left, Nike standing left, crowning the King's name with a laurel wreath and holding a palm; corn-ear in field to left, monogram before Nike.
The Seleucid Empire was a Greek-Macedonian state created by Seleucus I Nicator following the carve up of the empire created by Alexander the Great following his death.Seleucus received Babylonia and from there expand his dominions to include much of Alexander's near eastern territories. At the height of its power, it included central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Pamir and present day Pakistan.
The Seleucid Empire was a major center of Hellenistic culture which maintained the preeminence of Greek customs and where a Greek-Macedonian political elite dominated, mostly in the urban areas. The Greek population of the cities who formed the dominant elite were reinforced by emigration from Greece. Seleucid expansion into Anatolia and Greece was abruptly halted after decisive defeats at the hands of the Roman army. Their attempts to defeat their old enemy Ptolemaic Egypt was frustrated by Roman demands. Much of the eastern part of the empire was conquered by the Parthians under Mithridates I of Parthia in the mid-2nd century BC, yet the Seleucid kings continued to rule a rump state from Syria until the invasion by Armenian king Tigranes the Great and their ultimate overthrow by the Roman general Pompey.
Alexander I Balas was a king in the Seleucid Kingdom, one of the kingdoms that formed after Alexander the Great left his empire to "the strongest". His generals (the Diadochi) then proceeded to divided it among themselves and the next 250 years was spent fighting to determine who, indeed, was the strongest - until the Romans rose up and conquered them all. Alexander I Balas was a controversial figure set up by a rival king as a long lost son of a departed Seleucid king and therefore the rightful lord of the kingdom (Balas means lord - this one self proclaimed). Much fighting ensued and his reign was short even with his support from the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Rome. Well, the Ptolemaic king did support him early on, being his father-in-law and all, but as Alexander Balas turned to a life of debauchery, the support shifted to a rival and Alexander Balas lost it all, including his head. He did put out a lot of coins though in his short reign as he tried to cement his right to rule. For those that don't remember, the Seleucid Empire was a big one stretching from Syria to India at one point, while the Ptolemaic Kingdom was also large, composed mainly of Egypt and North Africa and across the sea to include parts of Asia Minor - the ruler and probably the most famous to us was Cleopatra VII, the last pharaoh of Egypt.
My cost $66.25
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| Judaea, Agrippa I 37-44 AD, AE Prutah, Under Claudius, 41/42 AD, Acts 12:1-25 |
ANCIENT - JUDAEAN (4th CENT BC - 2st CENT AD) JUDAEA Agrippa I, AD 37-44
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AE Prutah Judaea Acts 12:1-25 under Claudius, AD 41/42
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NGC
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Judaea Herod Agrippa I
37-44 AD
Hendim 553
No Grade
Obv. AGRIPA BACILEWC, umbrella-like canopy with fringes
Rev. Three ears of barley between two leaves, date L S at sides
Agrippa I. (M. Julius Agrippa, also known as Herod Agrippa I.)
Herod Agrippa I (37-44 AD) was the ruler of the Roman province of Jedaea. A confederate of the deranged Roman Emperor Caligula - who believed himself to b the Jewish Messiah - Agrippa vigorously persecuted followers of Jesus, imprisoning the Apostle Peter. According to Acts, Agrippa was struck down by God for accepting the praise of sycophants, and his body was eaten by worms.
King of Judea; born about the year 10 B.C. and died suddenly in 44. His career, with its abundant and extreme vicissitudes, illustrates in a remarkable manner the complete dependence of the royal family of Judea, even for the means of subsistence, upon the favor of the Roman emperors of the first century.
Early Life
When six years of age he was sent to Rome for his education, and there enjoyed the companionship of the gifted Drusus Cæsar, son of Tiberius. The extravagance of court life accustomed him to splendor and luxury, and his prospects, which were brilliant, were the means of furnishing him with a never-failing supply of money, of which he availed himself in the style of a spendthrift. But his circumstances were changed in the year 23, when his friend and patron, Drusus, died suddenly. From that hour the emperor declined to receive the high-spirited young man, and very soon his boon companions also forsook Agrippa. Destitute of all resources, he meditated suicide; but at the request of his wife, Cypros, his sister Herodias, who had been since about the year 25 the wife of the tetrarch Herod Antipas, took pity on Agrippa and secured for him the appointment of market overseer in her new capital, Tiberias. But even this new fortune did not last; his brother-in-law took every opportunity to make Agrippa feel his dependent position. This Agrippa found too much to endure. He resigned his post, and, after many adventures, returned to Rome in 36. Here, once again, he succeeded in overcoming ill fortune by securing the patronage of the heir apparent, Caligula. With this return to prosperity his extravagant ideas resumed sway over him and brought him to want. Deeming himself free from listeners, he was one day thoughtless enough openly to wish for the time when Caligula would ascend the throne of the Cæsars. When this remark was carried to the aged Tiberius, he had him loaded with chains and cast into prison. He suffered here for six months in constant terror of death, until Caligula, having become emperor, freed him with his own hands, and appointed him to the tetrarchy of his uncle Philip, and to that of Lysanias, giving him the title of king. To these honors the senate added the rights and title of pretor.
This wonderful change in his fortune excited the undisguised envy of his sister Herodias, and led her to urge her incapable husband to secure for himself at least equal rank and titles from the emperor. But Agrippa defeated her purpose. Her petition to the emperor was forestalled by a message from Agrippa, containing half-veiled intimations that his brother-in-law was meditating treason and independence. This was sufficient to destroy Herod Antipas. Land and throne were taken from him, and the districts of Galilee and the south of Perea, administered by him, were transferred to the charge of Agrippa.
Agrippa and Caligula
The king soon found opportunity to gain the gratitude and good wishes of his coreligionists. Caligula, whose extravagant desires and cruelty savored of insanity, conceived the idea of ordering thathis statues be set up in all temples and receive divine honors. The Jews alone dared to offer resistance to this decree. They induced the Syrian governor, Petronius, to postpone this desecration of the sanctuary for a long time, and he at last determined to inform the emperor that the execution of his order would be impossible without terrible massacres. Agrippa happened to be in Rome at that time, and had succeeded in getting from Caligula a repeal of his odious edict. But when Petronius' report arrived that the Jews would rather suffer death than permit the erection of the imperial statues in their Temple, the emperor canceled his repeal, and ordered the forcible execution of his command. Fortunately, the tidings that the imbecile tyrant had been murdered by his body-guard arrived before his instructions to put his commands into effect. His successor, Claudius, showed himself grateful to Agrippa for important services rendered him, and upon his accession, placed under his rule the remainder of Palestine, the territories of Samaria, Judea, and Idumæa, formerly governed by Archelaus. Loaded with honors and titles, Agrippa returned home, and the few remaining years of his benevolent sway afforded the people a brief period of peace and prosperity. The evil consequences of a ruler's unbridled passions and tyranny had been sufficiently evident to him in Rome, and they had taught him moderation and strict self-control. His people regarded him with love and devotion, because he healed with tender hand the deep wounds inflicted upon the national susceptibilities by brutal Roman governors. He ruled his subjects with compassion and friendliness. Like the ancestral Asmoneans from whom he sprang through his noble grandmother Mariamne, he honored the Law. Like the merest commoner, he carried his basket of first-fruits to the Temple; with the people he celebrated appropriately the Feast of Tabernacles, and he devoted to the sanctuary a golden chain with which Caligula had honored him. On one occasion, while in the street, he met a bridal procession which drew up to let him pass, but he halted and bade it take precedence. He sought to lighten taxation, remitting the impost on houses in Jerusalem. On the coins minted by him he carefully avoided placing any symbols which could offend the people's religious sentiment. Thus, prosperity and comfort seemed to be dawning anew for the Jews.
My Cost $80.89
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| Parthian Kingdom, Vologases VI, cAD 207-222, AR Drachm (3.66g), obv bust with tiara, rv Arsaces I hldg.bow |
ANCIENT - GREEK EMPIRES (6th CENT BC - 5th CENT AD) PARTHIAN KINGDOM Vologases VI, cAD 207-222
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AR Drachm cAD 207-222 Parthian Kingdom rv Arsaces I hldg. bow obv bust with tiara
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NGC MS Strike: 4/5 Surface: 4/5 Strike: 4/5 Surface: 4/5
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Parthian Kingdom Vologases VI
Time Period: cAD 207-222
Composition: Silver
Mint: Mint of Ecbatana
Grade: MS, Strike 4/5, Surface 4/5
Census - NGC does not provide census info on ancient coins
Obv: Bust left with long, pointed beard extending beyond beaded border; wearing tiara with ear flaps, pellets on stalks round crest and a line of pellets on stalks on side; lines coming out of crest and diadem with loop at the top and two ends. Monogram behind head (abbreviated king's name in Aramaic)
Rev: Archer seated right on throne holding bow, below bow monogram 26. Blundered Greek legend with top line in Aramaic
Vologases VI succeeded his father Vologases V as king in cAD. 208. His rule was unquestioned for a few years, till his brother Artabanus IV rebelled. The dynastic struggle between the two brothers most likely started in cAD 213. Artabanus successfully conquered much of the empire, including Media and Susa. Vologases VI seems to have only managed to keep Seleucia, where he minted coins. The Roman emperor Caracalla sought to take advantage of the conflict between the two brothers. He tried to find a pretext to invade the Parthian Empire by requesting Vologases to send two refugees—a philosopher named Antiochus and a certain Tiridates, who was possibly either an Armenian prince or an uncle of Vologases. To the surprise of the Romans, Vologases had the two men sent to Caracalla in cAD 215, thus denying him his pretext. Caracalla's choice of contacting Vologases instead of Artabanus shows that the Romans still saw him as the dominant king.
Caracalla thus chose to preoccupy himself with an invasion of Armenia. He appointed a freedman named Theocritus as the leader of the invasion, which eventually ended in a disaster. Caracalla then once again sought to start a war with the Parthians. In another attempt to gain a pretext, he requested Artabanus to marry his daughter, which he declined. It is disputed whether Caracalla's proposal was sincere or not. Caracalla's choice to contact Artabanus shows that the latter was now considered the dominant king over Vologases, who would rule a small principality centered around Seleucia until 221/2. A few years later (224), Ardashir I (r. 224–242), the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, defeated and killed Artabanus, thus putting an end to the Parthian Empire. Over the next few years, Ardashir I further expanded his new empire, and must have driven out or defeated Vologases in Mesopotamia soon after 228. Vologases had a son named Vachagan I, who founded the Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania.
Vologases is the Greek and Latin form of the Parthian Walagash. The name is also attested in New Persian as Balāsh and Middle Persian Wardākhsh (also spelled Walākhsh). The etymology of the name is unclear. A suggestion has been made that the name could mean "strength".
My Cost: $83.00
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| Roman Empire Gordian III, AD 238-244, AR Double-Denarius (4.17g) rv Victory stg |
ANCIENT - ROMAN EMPIRE (1st CENT BC - 5th CENT AD) ROMAN EMPIRE Gordian III, AD 238-244
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AR Double-Denarius AD 238-244 rv Victory stg.
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NGC AU Strike: 4/5 Surface: 4/5
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Ancient Rome Gordian III
238-244 AD
RIC #154
Grade is AU, Strike 4/5, Surface 4/5,
Obv. IMP GORDIANVS PIVS FEL AVG, radiate draped bust right
Rev. VICTOR AETER, Victory standing left with palm, resting sheild on captive at foot.
Relatively few details are known about the five-and-a-half year reign of the teenage emperor Gordian III. Continuity with the Severan era seems to have marked both the policy and personnel of his government. Security along the frontiers remained the most pressing concern, and the young emperor would die while on campaign against the expanding Sassanian empire and its energetic leader, Shapur I.
The future emperor was born in Rome on 20 January 225. His mother was a daughter of the senator Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus (known later to historians as Gordian I). His father was undoubtedly a senator, but the name of his father is today unknown. The father was already dead before the start of the African uprising, involving the boy's grandfather, against the emperor Maximinus
Little reliable information is available about the first few years of Gordian III's reign. Pupienus and Balbinus suffered damnatio memoriae, though it is difficult to ascertain how many other members of the senatorial elite (if any) were either dismissed from their posts or executed by the new regime. The families prominent during the Severan dynasty, and even some families prominent under the Antonines, continued to control offices and commands with a teenage emperor on the throne. In 240, an uprising again originated in the province of Africa, with the proconsul Sabinianus proclaimed emperor. Like the uprising of Gordian I in Africa two years earlier, this uprising was quickly suppressed, but unlike the events of 238, the revolt of Sabinianus failed to gain support in other parts of the empire.
In late 240 or early 241, Gordian III appointed Timesitheus as pretorian prefect. Timesitheus, who was of Eastern origin, had a long career in the imperial service as a procurator in provinces ranging from Arabia to Gaul and from Asia to Germany. Timesitheus' proven abilities quickly made him the central figure in Gordian III's government, and the praetorian prefect's authority was enhanced by the marriage of his daughter, Furia Sabinia Tranquillina, to the young emperor in the summer of 241.
Maintaining security along the frontiers remained the emperor's most serious challenge. Difficulties along the Danube continued, but the greater danger was in the East. The aggressive expansion of the renewed Persian empire under the Sassanian emperor Ardashir I continued under his son and successor, Shapur I. The focus of that expansion was in upper Mesopotamia (in what today is southeastern Turkey, northern Syria and northern Iraq), much of which had been under direct Roman control for more than a generation. Ardashir may already have captured Nisibis and Carrhae during the final months of Maximinus' reign. In 240, the ailing Ardashir seems to have made his son Shapur co-regent. During this year Hatra, the location of Rome's easternmost military garrison, (today in northern Iraq roughly 55 miles south of Mosul), was captured by the Sassanians.
Planning for a massive Roman military counterattack was soon underway. Soldiers travelled from the West during the following year, when Carrhae and Nisibis were retaken, and the Romans won a decisive victory at Resaina. Gordian III joined his army in upper Mesopotamia for campaigning in 243, but during the year the emperor's father-in-law, Timesitheus, died of an illness. The surviving Praetorian Prefect, C. Julius Priscus, convinced the emperor to appoint his brother M. Julius Philippus -- who would succeed Gordian III as the emperor Philip the Arab -- as Timesitheus' successor. The campaign against the Sassanians continued as the Roman army proceeded to march down the Euphrates during the fall and early winter.
Early in 244, the Roman and Sassanian armies met near the city of Misiche (modern Fallujah in Iraq, 40 miles west of Baghdad). Shapur's forces were triumphant, and the city was renamed Peroz-Shapur, "Victorious [is] Shapur." Shapur commemorated his victory with a sculpture and trilingual inscription (at Naqsh-i-Rustam in modern-day Iran) that claimed that Gordian III was killed in the battle.
Roman sources do not mention this battle, indicating instead that Gordian III died near Circesium, along the Euphrates some 250 miles upstream from Peroz-Shapur, and that a cenotaph was built at a location named Zaitha. Philip is universally blamed in these sources for causing Gordian III's death, either directly or by fomenting discontent at the emperor by cutting off the troops' supplies. Philip, who was proclaimed Gordian III's successor by the army, seems to have reported that the 19-year-old emperor died of an illness.
However Gordian III died, it seems unlikely to have been as a direct result of the battle at Misiche/Peroz-Shapur. The emperor's Persian campaigns were promoted within the Roman Empire as a success. Other than the loss of Hatra, the Sassanians gained control over no additional territory as a result of the war, and Shapur did not disturb Roman interests in upper Mesopotamia for nearly eight years. Gordian III was deified after his death, and the positive portrayal his reign received was reinforced by the negative portrayals of his successor, Philip.
My cost $67.66
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| Roman Empire, Gordian III, AD 238-244, AR Denarius (2.75g), rv Diana holding torch |
ANCIENT - ROMAN EMPIRE (1st CENT BC - 5th CENT AD) ROMAN EMPIRE Gordian III, AD 238-244
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AR Denarius AD 238-244 rv Diana hldg. torch
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NGC MS Strike: 4/5 Surface: 4/5 Strike: 4/5 Surface: 4/5
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Ancient Rome Gordian III
Time Period: AD 238-244
Composition: Silver
RIC IV-3 #127
Grade: MS, Strike 4/5, Surface 4/5,
Census - NGC does not provide census info on ancient coins
Obv. Laureate & draped bust right with Lettering: IMP GORDIANVS PIVS FEL AVG
Rev. Diana standing right, holding long transverse torch with Lettering: DIANA LVCIFERA
Relatively few details are known about the five-and-a-half year reign of the teenage emperor Gordian III. Continuity with the Severan era seems to have marked both the policy and personnel of his government. Security along the frontiers remained the most pressing concern, and the young emperor would die while on campaign against the expanding Sassanian empire and its energetic leader, Shapur I.
The future emperor was born in Rome on 20 January 225. His mother was a daughter of the senator Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus (known later to historians as Gordian I). His father was undoubtedly a senator, but the name of his father is today unknown. The father was already dead before the start of the African uprising, involving the boy's grandfather, against the emperor Maximinus
Little reliable information is available about the first few years of Gordian III's reign. Pupienus and Balbinus suffered damnatio memoriae, though it is difficult to ascertain how many other members of the senatorial elite (if any) were either dismissed from their posts or executed by the new regime. The families prominent during the Severan dynasty, and even some families prominent under the Antonines, continued to control offices and commands with a teenage emperor on the throne. In 240, an uprising again originated in the province of Africa, with the proconsul Sabinianus proclaimed emperor. Like the uprising of Gordian I in Africa two years earlier, this uprising was quickly suppressed, but unlike the events of 238, the revolt of Sabinianus failed to gain support in other parts of the empire.
In late 240 or early 241, Gordian III appointed Timesitheus as pretorian prefect. Timesitheus, who was of Eastern origin, had a long career in the imperial service as a procurator in provinces ranging from Arabia to Gaul and from Asia to Germany. Timesitheus' proven abilities quickly made him the central figure in Gordian III's government, and the praetorian prefect's authority was enhanced by the marriage of his daughter, Furia Sabinia Tranquillina, to the young emperor in the summer of 241.
Maintaining security along the frontiers remained the emperor's most serious challenge. Difficulties along the Danube continued, but the greater danger was in the East. The aggressive expansion of the renewed Persian empire under the Sassanian emperor Ardashir I continued under his son and successor, Shapur I. The focus of that expansion was in upper Mesopotamia (in what today is southeastern Turkey, northern Syria and northern Iraq), much of which had been under direct Roman control for more than a generation. Ardashir may already have captured Nisibis and Carrhae during the final months of Maximinus' reign. In 240, the ailing Ardashir seems to have made his son Shapur co-regent. During this year Hatra, the location of Rome's easternmost military garrison, (today in northern Iraq roughly 55 miles south of Mosul), was captured by the Sassanians.
Planning for a massive Roman military counterattack was soon underway. Soldiers travelled from the West during the following year, when Carrhae and Nisibis were retaken, and the Romans won a decisive victory at Resaina. Gordian III joined his army in upper Mesopotamia for campaigning in 243, but during the year the emperor's father-in-law, Timesitheus, died of an illness. The surviving Praetorian Prefect, C. Julius Priscus, convinced the emperor to appoint his brother M. Julius Philippus -- who would succeed Gordian III as the emperor Philip the Arab -- as Timesitheus' successor. The campaign against the Sassanians continued as the Roman army proceeded to march down the Euphrates during the fall and early winter.
Early in 244, the Roman and Sassanian armies met near the city of Misiche (modern Fallujah in Iraq, 40 miles west of Baghdad). Shapur's forces were triumphant, and the city was renamed Peroz-Shapur, "Victorious [is] Shapur." Shapur commemorated his victory with a sculpture and trilingual inscription (at Naqsh-i-Rustam in modern-day Iran) that claimed that Gordian III was killed in the battle.
Roman sources do not mention this battle, indicating instead that Gordian III died near Circesium, along the Euphrates some 250 miles upstream from Peroz-Shapur, and that a cenotaph was built at a location named Zaitha. Philip is universally blamed in these sources for causing Gordian III's death, either directly or by fomenting discontent at the emperor by cutting off the troops' supplies. Philip, who was proclaimed Gordian III's successor by the army, seems to have reported that the 19-year-old emperor died of an illness.
However Gordian III died, it seems unlikely to have been as a direct result of the battle at Misiche/Peroz-Shapur. The emperor's Persian campaigns were promoted within the Roman Empire as a success. Other than the loss of Hatra, the Sassanians gained control over no additional territory as a result of the war, and Shapur did not disturb Roman interests in upper Mesopotamia for nearly eight years. Gordian III was deified after his death, and the positive portrayal his reign received was reinforced by the negative portrayals of his successor, Philip.
My cost $105.50
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| Romano-Gallic Empire, Postumus, AD 260-269, BL Double-Denarius (3.26g) rv Moneta stg. |
ANCIENT - ROMAN EMPIRE (1st CENT BC - 5th CENT AD) ROMANO-GALLIC EMPIRE Postumus, AD 260-269
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BI Double-Denarius AD 260-269 Romano-gallic Empire rv Moneta stg.
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NGC AU Strike: 4/5 Surface: 4/5
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Romano-Gallic Empire Postumus
260-269 AD
RIC #75
Grade is AU, Strike 4/5, Surface 4/5,
Obv. IMP C POSTVMVS P F AVG, radiate, draped & cuirassed bust right.
Rev. MONETA AVG, Moneta standing left with scales & cornucopiae.
Postumus remained Gallienus's nemesis for most of his reign and, with the aid of the traitor Aureolus, his eventual killer. Postumus came on the scene following a dispute with Saloninus over the distribution of captured war loot. Because Postumus was in command of the military, Saloninus had little to defend him except for his title and official recognition. Postumus had himself named emperor and captured and executed Saloninus sealing his fate with the rest of the empire. However, the rest of the empire could do little at the moment. Gallienus was embroiled with battling several usurpers out east and could not avenge his brother's death. Neither could Rome do anything about it. And so for the time being Postumus held the western half of the empire as de facto ruler.
When Gallienus finally returned from the east he would find Postumus entrenched in Gaul and having snatched Britain and Spain away from the empire as well. Because his power had grown during Gallienus's absence, he had had time to consolidate his leadership and posed a bigger threat. However, for one reason or another, Postumus never made preparations to attack Rome or mount an offensive against Gallienus and contented himself with this secessionist state. But he knew Gallienus was mulling over his options all the meanwhile and had on his agenda the recapturing of the lost lands. Gallienus mounted several expeditions to depose Postumus but all failed. Still, Gallienus would most likely have ultimately been the ultimate victor had Postumus not gained the aid of one of Gallienus's trusted men, Aureolus, who engineered a successful conspiracy ending with the murder of Gallienus. Postumus would meet a deadly fate himself the following year following a revolt from within instigated by one of his own earlier leading generals, Laelianus, in a move very reminiscent of his own rise to power
My cost $75.48
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| Roman Empire Claudius II, AD 268-270, BL Double Denarius (3.83g), obv left facing bust, rv Sol stg. |
ANCIENT - ROMAN EMPIRE (1st CENT BC - 5th CENT AD) ROMAN EMPIRE Claudius II, AD 268-270
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BI Double-Denarius 268-270 AD rv Sol stg. obv left-facing bust
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NGC MS Surface: 4/5 Surface: 4/5
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Ancient Rome Claudius II Gothicus
268-270 AD
RIC #221
Grade is MS, Strike 4/5, Surface 4/5,
Census - NGC does not provide census info on ancient coins
Obv. IMP C CLAVDIVS AVG, radiate head left.
Rev. SOL AVG, Sol standing left, holding whip and raising right hand.
M. Aurelius Claudius, known to history as Claudius Gothicus or Claudius II, was born in either Dalmatia or Illyria on May 10, probably in A.D. 213 or 214. Claudius was known as being tall, with fiery eyes, and so strong that he could knock out the teeth of man or beast with one punch. It also says that Trajan Decius rewarded him after Claudius demonstrated his strength while wrestling another soldier in the Campus Martius.
There is some evidence that Claudius was wounded in Gallienus' campaign to put down the revolt of Ingenuus and that he later served with Aureolus under Gallienus in the war with Postumus. By 268, when Gallienus took his troops into Italy to put down Aureolus' revolt, Claudius had emerged as heir-apparent to Gallienus and may also have been involved in the plot to assassinate the emperor.
The first major challenge facing the new emperor was that of the Alemanni, who had invaded Raetia and Italy. After an early defeat, Claudius replaced some irresponsible officers and soldiers, designated Aurelian as cavalry commander, and led the army to a decisive victory over the Alemanni. This victory earned Claudius the title of Germanicus Maximus and several of his coin-types appear to refer to victory over the Germans.
In addition to bad weather, a lack of supplies, and hunger, plague was a major factor in the defeat of the Goths. Many of the Gothic prisoners were either impressed into Roman military service or settled on farms as coloni. Claudius received the title Gothicus in recognition of his triumph over the Goths. At some point he had also been given the title Parthicus, but the unlikelihood of any conflict with the Parthians in his short reign makes this difficult to explain. Perhaps Damerau was correct in his suggestion that a Parthian unit may have been involved in one of the battles with the Palmyrenes, although on this front there were few achievements to claim. In any case, Claudius' victory over the Goths was short-lived. The emperor himself caught the plague and died at Sirmium early in 270. He was 56 years old. Claudius' brother, Quintillus, became emperor briefly before losing out to Aurelian.
My cost $152
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| Roman Empire, Aurelian, AD 270-275, BI Double-Denarius (3.86g), rv. Sol w/captive at feet, RIC V 134 Porosity |
ANCIENT - ROMAN EMPIRE (1st CENT BC - 5th CENT AD) ROMAN EMPIRE Aurelian, AD 270-275
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BI Double-Denarius AD 270-275 RIC V 134. Porosity. rv Sol w/captive at feet
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NGC AU Strike: 5/5 Surface: 4/5 Strike: 5/5 Surface: 4/5
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Ancient Rome Aurelian
Time Period: AD 270-275
Mint: Mediolanum
Region: Italy
Composition: Silver
RIC V 134
Grade: AU, Strike 5/5, Surface 4/5, Silvering
Census - NGC does not provide census info on ancient coins
Obv. Bust of Aurelian radiate cuirassed right with Lettering: IMP AVRELIANVS AVG
Rev. Sol, radiate, standing left, raising right hand and holding globe in left hand; at his feet to the left, captive with Lettering: ORIENS AVG
Aurelian was born on 9 September, most likely in 214 AD, although 215 AD is also possible. The ancient sources do not agree on his place of birth, although he was generally accepted as being a native of Illyricum but, another common belief was that he was born in Greece. According to the author of the Historia Augusta, "Aurelian was born of a humble family, at Sirmium according to most writers, but in Dacia Ripensis according to some. I remember, moreover, having read one author who declared that he was born in Moesia". The province of Dacia Ripensis was actually created in Moesia by Aurelian as Emperor when he abandoned the old trans-Danubian territory of Dacia. The Roman historian Eutropius also opts for the area that later became Dacia Ripensis. The academic consensus is that he was of humble birth and that his father was a peasant-farmer who took his Roman nomen from his landlord, a senator of the clan Aurelius. Saunders suggests that his family might in fact have been of Roman settler origin and of much higher social status; however, his suggestion has not been taken up by his more recent academic colleagues such as Southern and Watson.
Using the evidence of the ancient sources, it was at one time suggested that Aurelian's mother was a freedwoman of a member of the clan Aurelius and that she herself was a priestess of the Sun-God in her native village. These two propositions, together with the tradition that the clan Aurelius had been entrusted with the maintenance of that deity's cult in Rome, inspired the notion that this could explain the devotion to the sun-god that Aurelian was to manifest as Emperor . However, it seems that this pleasant extrapolation of dubious facts is now generally accepted as being no more than just that.
It is commonly accepted that Aurelian probably joined the army in 235 AD at around age twenty. It is also generally assumed that, as a member of the lowest rank of society—albeit a citizen—he would have enlisted in the ranks of the legions. Saunders suggests that his career is more easily understood if it is assumed that his family was of Roman settler origins with a tradition of military service and that he enlisted as an equestrian. This would have opened up for him the tres militia—the three steps of the equestrian military career—one of the routes to higher equestrian office in the Imperial Service. This could be a more expeditious route to senior military and procuratorial offices than that pursued by ex-rankers, although not necessarily less laborious. However, Saunders's conjecture as to Aurelian's early career is not supported by any evidence other than his nomen which could indicate Italian settler ancestry—although even this is contested—and his rise to the highest ranks which is more easily understood if he did not have to start from the bottom. His suggestion has not been taken up by other academic authorities.
Whatever his origins, Aurelian certainly must have built up a very solid reputation for military competence during the tumultuous mid-decades of the century. To be sure, the exploits detailed in the Historia Augusta vita Divi Aureliani, while not always impossible, are not supported by any independent evidence and one at least is demonstrably an invention typical of that author. However, he was probably associated with Gallienus's cavalry army and shone as an officer of that elite unit because, when he finally emerged in a historically reliable context in the early part of the reign of Claudius II, he seems to have been its commander.
His successes as a cavalry commander ultimately made him a member of Emperor Gallienus' entourage. In 268, Aurelian and his cavalry participated in general Claudius' victory over the Goths at the Battle of Naissus. Later that year Gallienus traveled to Italy and fought Aureolus, his former general and now usurper for the throne. Driving Aureolus back into Mediolanum, Gallienus promptly besieged his adversary in the city. However, while the siege was ongoing the Emperor was assassinated. One source says Aurelian, who was present at the siege, participated and supported general Claudius for the purple—which is plausible.]
Aurelian was married to Ulpia Severina, about whom little is known. Like Aurelian she was from Dacia. They are known to have had a daughter together.
Claudius was acclaimed Emperor by the soldiers outside Mediolanum. The new Emperor immediately ordered the senate to deify Gallienus. Next, he began to distance himself from those responsible for his predecessor's assassination, ordering the execution of those directly involved. Aureolus was still besieged in Mediolanum and sought reconciliation with the new emperor, but Claudius had no sympathy for a potential rival. The emperor had Aureolus killed and one source implicates Aurelian in the deed, perhaps even signing the warrant for his death himself.
During the reign of Claudius, Aurelian was promoted rapidly: he was given command of the elite Dalmatian cavalry and soon promoted to overall Magister equitum, what was effectively the head of the army after the Emperor and what had been Emperor Claudius' own position before his acclamation. The war against Aureolus and the concentration of forces in Italy allowed the Alamanni to break through the Rhaetian limes along the upper Danube. Marching through Raetia and the Alps unhindered, they entered northern Italy and began pillaging the area. In early 269, emperor Claudius and Aurelian marched north to meet the Alamanni, defeating them decisively at the Battle of Lake Benacus.
While still dealing with the defeated enemy, news came from the Balkans reporting large-scale attacks from the Heruli, Goths, Gepids, and Bastarnae. Claudius immediately dispatched Aurelian to the Balkans to contain the invasion as best he could until Claudius could arrive with his main army. The Goths were besieging Thessalonica when they heard of emperor Claudius' approach, causing them to abandon the siege and pillage north-eastern Macedonia. Aurelian intercepted the Goths with his Dalmatian cavalry and defeated them in a series of minor skirmishes, killing as many as three thousand of the enemy. Aurelian continued to harass the enemy, driving them northward into Upper Moesia where emperor Claudius had assembled his main army. The ensuing battle was indecisive: the northward advance of the Goths was halted but Roman losses were heavy.
Claudius could not afford another pitched battle, so he instead laid a successful ambush, killing thousands. However, the majority of the Goths escaped and began retreating south the way they had come. For the rest of year, Aurelian harassed the enemy with his Dalmatian cavalry.
Now stranded in Roman territory, the Goths' lack of provisions began to take its toll. Aurelian, sensing his enemies' desperation, attacked them with the full force of his cavalry, killing many and driving the remainder westward into Thrace. As winter set in, the Goths retreated into the Haemus Mountains, only to find themselves trapped and surrounded. The harsh conditions now exacerbated their shortage of food. However, the Romans underestimated the Goths and let their guard down, allowing the enemy to break through their lines and escape. Apparently emperor Claudius ignored advice, perhaps from Aurelian, and withheld the cavalry and sent in only the infantry to stop their break-out.
The determined Goths killed many of the oncoming infantry and were only prevented from slaughtering them all when Aurelian finally charged in with his Dalmatian cavalry. The Goths still managed to escape and continued their march through Thrace. The Roman army continued to follow the Goths during the spring and summer of 270. Meanwhile, a devastating plague swept through the Balkans, killing many soldiers in both armies.
Emperor Claudius fell ill on the march to the battle and returned to his regional headquarters in Sirmium, leaving Aurelian in charge of operations against the Goths. Aurelian used his cavalry to great effect, breaking the Goths into smaller groups which were easier to deal with. By late summer the Goths were defeated: any survivors were stripped of their animals and booty and were levied into the army or settled as farmers in frontier regions. Aurelian had no time to relish his victories; in late August news arrived from Sirmium that Emperor Claudius was dead.
When Claudius died, his brother Quintillus seized power with support of the Senate. With an act typical of the Crisis of the Third Century, the army refused to recognize the new Emperor, preferring to support one of its own commanders: Aurelian was proclaimed emperor in September 270 by the legions in Sirmium. Aurelian defeated Quintillus' troops, and was recognized as Emperor by the Senate after Quintillus' death. The claim that Aurelian was chosen by Claudius on his death bed can be dismissed as propaganda; later, probably in 272, Aurelian put his own dies imperii the day of Claudius' death, thus implicitly considering Quintillus a usurper.
With his base of power secure, he now turned his attention to Rome's greatest problems—recovering the vast territories lost over the previous two decades, and reforming the res publica.
My Cost $67.00
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| Roman Empire, Constantine I, AD 307-337, BI Reduced Nummus (4.34g) Lugdunum, rv Sol Holding Globe |
ANCIENT - ROMAN EMPIRE (1st CENT BC - 5th CENT AD) ROMAN EMPIRE Constantine I, AD 307-337
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BI Reduced Nummus rv Sol hldg. globe Lugdunum
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NGC AU Strike: 5/5 Surface: 4/5
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Ancient Rome Constantine I
307-337 AD
RIC VII Lyons 5; Sear #16066
Grade is AU, Strike 5/5, Surface 4/5
Obv. CONSTANTINVS PF AVG, laureate, draped and cuirassed bust right
Rev. SOLI INVICTO COMITI, Sol standing left, holding globe; S-F across fields. Mintmark PLG
Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus; Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Μέγας; 27 February c. 272 AD – 22 May 337 AD), also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine (in the Orthodox Church as Saint Constantine the Great, Equal-to-the-Apostles), was a Roman Emperor from 306 to 337 AD. Constantine was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a Roman army officer, and his consort Helena. His father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in the west in 293 AD. Constantine was sent east, where he rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under the emperors Diocletian and Galerius. In 305, Constantius was raised to the rank of Augustus, senior western emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his father in Britannia (Britain). Acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum (modern-day York) after his father's death in 306 AD, Constantine emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of both west and east by 324 AD.
As emperor, Constantine enacted many administrative, financial, social, and military reforms to strengthen the empire. The government was restructured and civil and military authority separated. A new gold coin, the solidus, was introduced to combat inflation. It would become the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The first Roman emperor to claim conversion to Christianity, Constantine played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which decreed tolerance for Christianity in the empire. He called the First Council of Nicaea in 325, at which the Nicene Creed was professed by Christians. In military matters, the Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile field units and garrison soldiers capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions. Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers—the Franks, the Alamanni, the Goths, and the Sarmatians—even resettling territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century.
The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire. He built a new imperial residence at Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople after himself (the laudatory epithet of "New Rome" came later, and was never an official title). It would later become the capital of the Empire for over one thousand years; for which reason the later Eastern Empire would come to be known as the Byzantine Empire. His more immediate political legacy was that, in leaving the empire to his sons, he replaced Diocletian's tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession. His reputation flourished during the lifetime of his children and centuries after his reign. The medieval church upheld him as a paragon of virtue while secular rulers invoked him as a prototype, a point of reference, and the symbol of imperial legitimacy and identity. Beginning with the Renaissance, there were more critical appraisals of his reign due to the rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources. Critics portrayed him as a tyrant. Trends in modern and recent scholarship attempted to balance the extremes of previous scholarship.
Constantine is a significant figure in the history of Christianity. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, built on his orders at the purported site of Jesus' tomb in Jerusalem, became the holiest place in Christendom. The Papal claim to temporal power in the High Middle Ages was based on the supposed Donation of Constantine. He is venerated as a saint by Eastern Orthodox, Byzantine Catholics, and Anglicans.
My Cost $66.91
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| Roman Empire, Constantine I, AD 307-337, AE3 (BI Nummus) (3.34g) Trier, rv Sol Holding Globe |
ANCIENT - ROMAN EMPIRE (1st CENT BC - 5th CENT AD) ROMAN EMPIRE Constantine I, AD 307-337
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AE3 (BI Nummus) rv Sol hldg. globe Trier
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NGC AU Strike: 5/5 Surface: 4/5
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Ancient Rome Constantine I
307-337 AD
Trier RIC VII 102
Grade is AU, Strike 5/5, Surface 4/5
Obv. CONSTANTINVS AVG, laureate, cuirassed bust right
Rev. SOLI INVICTO COMITI, Sol standing left, holding right hand high in salute and globe, T-F across fields, Mintmark BTR
Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus; Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Μέγας; 27 February c. 272 AD – 22 May 337 AD), also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine (in the Orthodox Church as Saint Constantine the Great, Equal-to-the-Apostles), was a Roman Emperor from 306 to 337 AD. Constantine was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a Roman army officer, and his consort Helena. His father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in the west in 293 AD. Constantine was sent east, where he rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under the emperors Diocletian and Galerius. In 305, Constantius was raised to the rank of Augustus, senior western emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his father in Britannia (Britain). Acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum (modern-day York) after his father's death in 306 AD, Constantine emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of both west and east by 324 AD.
As emperor, Constantine enacted many administrative, financial, social, and military reforms to strengthen the empire. The government was restructured and civil and military authority separated. A new gold coin, the solidus, was introduced to combat inflation. It would become the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The first Roman emperor to claim conversion to Christianity, Constantine played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which decreed tolerance for Christianity in the empire. He called the First Council of Nicaea in 325, at which the Nicene Creed was professed by Christians. In military matters, the Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile field units and garrison soldiers capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions. Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers—the Franks, the Alamanni, the Goths, and the Sarmatians—even resettling territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century.
The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire. He built a new imperial residence at Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople after himself (the laudatory epithet of "New Rome" came later, and was never an official title). It would later become the capital of the Empire for over one thousand years; for which reason the later Eastern Empire would come to be known as the Byzantine Empire. His more immediate political legacy was that, in leaving the empire to his sons, he replaced Diocletian's tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession. His reputation flourished during the lifetime of his children and centuries after his reign. The medieval church upheld him as a paragon of virtue while secular rulers invoked him as a prototype, a point of reference, and the symbol of imperial legitimacy and identity. Beginning with the Renaissance, there were more critical appraisals of his reign due to the rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources. Critics portrayed him as a tyrant. Trends in modern and recent scholarship attempted to balance the extremes of previous scholarship.
Constantine is a significant figure in the history of Christianity. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, built on his orders at the purported site of Jesus' tomb in Jerusalem, became the holiest place in Christendom. The Papal claim to temporal power in the High Middle Ages was based on the supposed Donation of Constantine. He is venerated as a saint by Eastern Orthodox, Byzantine Catholics, and Anglicans.
My Cost $71.69
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| Roman Empire, Constantius II, AD 337-361, BI Centenlonalis (5.26g)
Siscla. Issue of Vetanio, HOC SIGNO VICTOR ERIS |
ANCIENT - ROMAN EMPIRE (1st CENT BC - 5th CENT AD) ROMAN EMPIRE Constantius II,AD 337-361
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BI Centenionalis HOC SIGNO VICTOR ERIS Siscia. Issue of Vetranio
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NGC Ch AU Strike: 4/5 Surface: 4/5
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Ancient Rome Constantius II
337-361 AD
Siscia RIC VIII 291
Grade is CH AU, Strike 4/5, Surface 4/5
Obv. D N CONSTAN-TIVS P F AVG, pearl-diademed and cuirassed bust right, A behind, star to right
Rev. HOC SIGNO VICTOR ERIS, emperor standing left, holding labarum with Chi-Rho and spear; to the right stands Victory, crowning him with wreath and holding palm branch; A in left field. Mintmark dot ΓSIS star
Constantius II ruled the Roman Empire between 337-361 CE. He was the second son of Constantine the Great and Fausta. Constantius was a devout follower of Arianism Christianity. Ruling for 24 years, he was the longest reigning son of Constantine and therefore, arguably, the most successful.
EARLY LIFE
Ammianus Marcellinus records his life and reign in great detail. However, the hostility of the historian has forever marred the reputation of this successful emperor, recording that his reign was plagued by imperial insecurity, court intrigue and an inability to solve widespread religious controversies.
Constantius was responsible for the slaughter of his cousins and uncles, of Theodora’s line during the great massacre of 337 CE. Such a slaughter within the imperial family itself was unprecedented. Murdering his relatives (such as Dalmatius, Hannibalianus and Julius Constantius), whom he saw as challengers to his and his brothers’ ascensions to the throne, Constantius secured his own position within the Empire. The only two male members of this line of the imperial family to survive were Gallus and Julian. Thus, after this slaughter and the division of the empire between Constantine’s sons, Constantius was able to secure the most prestigious and wealthiest provinces in the east for himself, and perhaps more importantly; Constantinople – the new capital of the Roman Empire. Eventually, after the death of his brothers; Constantine II and Constans, he became sole ruler of the Roman Empire. However, learning the lessons from Diocletian and Constantine the Great he realized that to rule and secure the empire on his own was impossible, thus throughout his reign he subsequently promoted his only surviving male relatives, Gallus and later Julian as his Caesars.
The main criticism leveled at Constantius was his cautious and defensive foreign policy. This is understandable given that most Roman contemporaries, even in the Later Roman Empire, were still obsessed with the idea of conquest and expansion. Yet this defensive policy safeguarded the frontiers of the empire against the Sassanian Empire – which was resurgent during the reign of the ambitious and skillful Shapur II – and the increased threat of the Germanic tribes in the west. His policy was also extremely important in protecting and conserving Rome’s limited manpower strength. The vicious cycle of usurpation, civil war and dynastic murder had led to wider imperial insecurity and vulnerability, making aggressive foreign campaigns ever more dangerous and unwise. The civil wars that had wrecked the empire were particularly damaging and always proved a huge drain on Roman manpower. For example, during Constantine’s conflict with Magnentius, his brothers’ murderer, Constantius lost 40% of his men while his rival’s army suffered a loss of 2/3.
Therefore, although Constantius’ foreign policy of defense and containment received a lot of criticism it proved a lot more effective than an aggressive policy would have done and indeed it actually formed the precedent for the later overall strategy of the Roman Empire.
Constantius was especially skilled at cementing the internal stability of the Empire – a fact that is often overlooked considering the bloody civil wars and unrest that had previously threatened the empire. During his reign he faced many varied internal threats and challengers. These included;
1) Vertranio: who had briefly been proclaimed by the Danube legions, was quickly disposed of. 2) Magnentius: survived three years of war with his brothers’ killer. Finally defeated him at the battle of Mons Seleuci. (later proscribed the followers of Magnentius. 3) Silvanus: the Frankish-born general was disposed of through a trick.4) Caesar Gallus: who was suspected of insubordination and was quickly checked and done away with. 5) Caesar Julian: openly rebelled against Constantius and succeeded – mainly because Constantius died before he could give battle.
It is important to note that Constantius II was the first ever Roman Emperor to publicly and monumentally celebrate victory in a civil war. This was a completely new and unprecedented move by a Roman Emperor, especially when one considers that in the early empire Octavian changed his name to Augustus in order to actively distance himself from civil conflict. Constantius’ decision to do this underlines the fact that the ability to protect against internal threats was now a major prerequisite of being a successful emperor during the Later Roman Empire.
Ammianus criticises Constantius throughout his narrative for his paranoia and his susceptibility to court intrigue and scheming courtiers. The historian states that this paranoia created a culture of suspicion and fear in Rome. However, given all the schemes and plots against him his suspicions seem highly justified – indeed if more Roman Emperors had been so ‘paranoid’ perhaps fewer would have fell victim to palace coups and military rebellions.
CONSTANTINOPLE & RELGION
Given that Constantius was the longest living and most documented of the sons of Constantine it is in his reign that we can best see how the reforms introduced earlier by Constantine the Great developed and worked. This is especially true for the reign of Constantius as he did not change much himself but instead chose to continue with the administrative systems set in place by his father. For example, he ensured the distinction between military and civil posts.
During his reign Constantinople increased in importance becoming more clearly recognizable as an equal to the Eternal City; Rome. Under Constantius the city increasingly became the center of the Empire. He was the patron of many important building projects in the city; granaries, Horrea Constantia, bath houses and a library. In addition, the Church of the Holy Apostles was remodeled and improvements were made to the water supply.
Indeed after his work in the city the orator Themistius (Oration 3) stated that Constantinople was now no longer a second city but a true rival to Rome itself.
Constantius also furthered the religious policies of the Constantinian Dynasty. With the Edict of 365 CE he ordered the closure of all pagan temples, forbade access to them and prohibited the performance of sacrifice both private and public; stating that those who disobeyed were to be executed. Laws such as this and others were specifically designed to break the power and institution of temples in pagan religious practice. Temples were central to almost every activity in paganism, acting as sites of celebration of the cults. Therefore, Constantius' policies were evidently a direct attack on paganism. The Emperor also had the famous statue of Victory removed from the Senate house in Rome as he believed no Christian should have to work in the shadow of a pagan monument. However, other practices were allowed to remain such as the burning of incense and candles which would, interestingly, later be adopted by Christianity.
Constantius died of an illness in 361 CE while marching to do battle with his Caesar, Julian, who had rebelled and claimed the title of Augustus.
My Cost $36.99
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